Building the Great Wall of China across centuries was a huge feat, shaped by ancient tools, local materials, and countless workers’ efforts. Though methods varied by dynasty (from Qin to Han, Ming), core practices stayed practical, fitting the tough terrain and limited technology of the time.

Materials: Using What’s Nearby

Ancient builders didn’t transport materials far—they relied on local resources to save time and energy.

• Rammed earth: The most common material, used in flat or dry areas (like northern plains). Workers mixed soil, sand, straw, and sometimes lime, then packed the mix tightly into wooden frames. When dry, it became hard enough to resist attacks.
• Stone: In mountainous regions (e.g., Yinshan Mountains), they cut local rocks to build the wall’s base and sides. This made the wall stronger against wind, rain, and enemy tools.
• Bricks and tiles: By the Ming Dynasty, bricks were used more—fired in kilns nearby, they were lighter than stone but still durable. They were often held together with mortar made of rice paste and lime.

Tools: Simple but Effective

Without modern machines, builders used basic tools:

• Wooden frames: For rammed earth—these held the soil mix while workers pressed it down with heavy wooden rams.
• Iron or stone chisels: To cut and shape stones for mountain sections.
• Baskets and carts: Carried soil, stones, or bricks—some were pulled by horses, others by workers themselves, especially on steep hills.
• Beacon towers: Not just tools for defense, but also for communication. Workers built these every 3–5 kilometers to send fire or drum signals, keeping construction teams connected.

Labor: Who Built the Wall?

Millions of people took part in building the wall over time. Most were:

• Soldiers: Many armies were ordered to build sections, especially in border areas (e.g., Han Dynasty soldiers built the Hexi Corridor wall).
• Farmers and workers: Conscripted from local villages, often during slow farming seasons.
• Prisoners and captives: Used for tough, dangerous tasks, like carrying heavy stones up mountains.

Key Construction Steps

1. Surveying: First, teams checked the land to find the best route—usually along hills or rivers, to use natural barriers.
2. Laying the base: For stone walls, they dug deep trenches and filled them with rocks to keep the wall stable. For rammed earth walls, they flattened the ground first.
3. Building up: Workers added layers of rammed earth or stones, one by one. Each layer was pressed hard to avoid gaps.
4. Adding defenses: Finally, they built watchtowers on top and added parapets (low walls) for soldiers to hide behind.

The ancient Great Wall’s construction showed how ancient Chinese people adapted to nature and used simple skills to create a world-famous structure. Every section tells a story of hard work—proof of human cleverness and persistence.

The Great Wall of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) was a vital defensive barrier that built on the Qin Dynasty’s legacy, primarily serving to fend off invasions from the northern Xiongnu (Huns). Unlike the Qin Great Wall, which focused on unifying existing fortifications, the Han Great Wall expanded far westward—reaching into modern-day Xinjiang—reflecting the dynasty’s ambition to secure trade routes and protect its vast territory. Its history not only highlights military strategy but also the dynasty’s rise from a weak state to a powerful empire.

Historical Background: The Han Dynasty and Its Two Periods

The Han Dynasty followed the short-lived Qin Dynasty, becoming one of China’s most prosperous and long-lasting unified empires. It is traditionally split into two phases: the Western Han (202 BCE – 24 CE) and the Eastern Han (25 CE – 220 CE).

In 202 BCE, Liu Bang—later known as Emperor Gaozu—founded the Western Han after defeating rival forces. He established the capital in Chang’an, modern-day Xi’an in Shaanxi Province. For over two centuries, Chang’an served as the political and cultural center of the empire. However, in 9 CE, Wang Mang, a court official, seized power and ended the Western Han.

The Eastern Han began in 25 CE when Liu Xiu, a descendant of Liu Bang, reclaimed the throne and declared himself Emperor Guangwu. He moved the capital east to Luoyang, in present-day Henan Province, giving the period its name. The Eastern Han lasted until 220 CE, when internal unrest led to the collapse of the empire.

Early Western Han: Peace with the Xiongnu

In its early years, the Western Han was weak. After the chaos of the Qin collapse and civil wars, the empire lacked the military strength to confront the Xiongnu—a powerful nomadic tribe that controlled the northern grasslands.

To avoid conflict, early Han emperors adopted a policy of “heqin” (marriage alliance). They sent Han princesses to marry Xiongnu leaders, along with gifts of silk, grain, and gold. This temporary peace allowed the Han to rebuild its economy and military. But it was seen as a compromise, and the Xiongnu still occasionally raided northern Han borders, keeping the empire on edge.

Han Wudi: Expanding the Great Wall

The turning point came during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (Han Wudi, r. 141 BCE – 87 BCE). By this time, the Han Dynasty had grown strong enough to challenge the Xiongnu. Han Wudi abandoned the “heqin” policy and launched a series of military campaigns to push the Xiongnu back. He also ordered the expansion and construction of the Great Wall, turning it into a key part of his northern defense strategy.

1. 127 BCE: Rebuilding and Extending North

In 127 BCE, Han Wudi started the first major Han Great Wall project. His forces reclaimed the area south of the Yinshan Mountains (in modern Inner Mongolia) from the Xiongnu. To secure this territory, Han Wudi ordered the repair of the old Qin Great Wall sections in the region and extended them north to the Yinshan foothills. This new barrier blocked the Xiongnu’s access to the fertile northern plains of the Han.

2. 121 BCE: The Hexi Corridor Wall

In 121 BCE, Han Wudi’s general Huo Qubing scored a major victory: he defeated the Xiongnu and took control of the Hexi Corridor. This narrow strip of land (in modern Gansu Province) was crucial—it linked the Han heartland to the Western Regions (central Asia) and the Silk Road.

To protect this strategic passage, Han Wudi ordered the construction of the Hexi Great Wall. Stretching from Yongdeng County to Jiuquan City (both in Gansu), this wall defended against not just the Xiongnu, but also the Qiang, another nomadic group in the west.

3. 110 BCE – 101 BCE: Westward to Xinjiang

By 110 BCE, Han forces had pushed further west. From Jiuquan City to Yumenguan Pass (Gansu), the Han built a line of forts along the route—these forts were part of the Great Wall system, used to guard against Xiongnu raids on caravans and military outposts.

Around 101 BCE, the Han extended the wall even farther: from Yumenguan Pass to Lop Nur (Luobu Po), a desert lake in modern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. This marked the westernmost point of the Han Great Wall.

In total, Han Wudi’s Great Wall projects added about 1,000 kilometers of new fortifications, taking over 20 years to complete.

Eastern Han: Defensive Walls Amid Weakness

The Eastern Han faced different challenges. After Wang Mang’s short reign, the empire was weakened by civil wars and economic troubles. It could no longer launch large-scale campaigns against the Xiongnu. Instead, the focus shifted to building smaller, defensive walls to protect key areas.

Emperor Guangwu (Liu Xiu) ordered his general Ma Cheng to construct four short defense walls along the northern and eastern borders. These walls were not part of a single continuous barrier but targeted vulnerable regions:

1. From Lishi County (Shaanxi) to the southeast of Xianyang (Shaanxi);
2. From Gaoling County (Shaanxi) to Anyi County (Shanxi);
3. From Taiyuan (Shanxi) to Jingxing County (Hebei);
4. From Dingxian County (Hebei) to Linhang County (Henan).

These walls helped protect the Eastern Han capital of Luoyang and nearby agricultural lands. Later, the Xiongnu split into two groups: the Southern Xiongnu and the Northern Xiongnu. The Southern Xiongnu allied with the Han and lived alongside Han people, helping to secure the northern border. The Northern Xiongnu were driven out of modern Xinjiang and the Mongolian Plateau during the reign of Emperor He of Han (r. 88 CE – 105 CE). With the Xiongnu threat gone, the Eastern Han stopped building new Great Wall sections.

New Discoveries of the Han Great Wall

In recent years, archaeologists have made important finds related to the Han Great Wall. One notable discovery is a 24-kilometer section in the desert of Gansu Province, near Jinta County.

Despite being exposed to wind and rain for nearly 2,000 years, the overall shape and style of this section remain clear—half of it is even well-preserved. This find has expanded the known length of Han Great Wall ruins in Jinta County to 320 kilometers, offering new insights into how the Han built and maintained their western defenses.

The Han Great Wall was more than just a military structure. It protected the Silk Road, allowing trade and cultural exchange between China and the West. It also marked the Han Dynasty’s expansion into central Asia, solidifying its status as a major empire. While much of the Han Great Wall has eroded over time, its legacy lives on—in the ruins that dot northern and western China, in historical records, and in the role it played in shaping ancient China’s relations with its neighbors. Without the Han Great Wall, the dynasty’s prosperity and influence might never have reached the heights they did.

The Great Wall of the Qin Dynasty (221 BCE – 206 BCE) holds a pivotal place in China’s architectural and historical legacy—it is widely regarded as the first officially unified Great Wall in Chinese history. Unlike the scattered, state-specific fortifications of the Warring States Period, this wall was a centralized project ordered by Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of unified China, to defend against northern nomadic threats. Its construction marked a turning point, transforming regional defensive walls into a national strategic barrier and laying the blueprint for all subsequent Great Wall projects.

Historical Background: The Unification of China and the Qin Dynasty

In 221 BCE, after years of conquest, Qin Shi Huang defeated the last of the six rival states (Han, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan, Qi) that had divided China during the Warring States Period. He established the Qin Dynasty—the first multi-ethnic, centralized feudal state in Chinese history—and took the title “First Emperor” (Shi Huangdi). This unification brought sweeping reforms: Qin Shi Huang standardized weights, measures, currency, and writing systems; replaced the old enfeoffment system with a centralized prefecture-county administration; and dismantled the internal walls and embankments that had blocked trade and communication between former states.

The Qin Dynasty’s territory expanded dramatically under Qin Shi Huang’s rule. Its northern border reached the eastern part of modern-day Liaoning Province, the southern edge of Inner Mongolia, the Yinshan Mountains, and the Great Bend of the Yellow River. To the east, it extended to the Bohai and Yellow Seas; to the south, it covered modern-day Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Guangdong Province; and to the west, it reached the eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This vast territory, however, faced a major threat from the north: the Xiongnu (often referred to as “Huns” in older texts).

The Xiongnu Threat: Why the Qin Great Wall Was Built

Long before the Qin unification, the Xiongnu—a powerful nomadic tribe living on the Mongolian grasslands—had harassed the northern borders of Warring States like Zhao, Yan, and Qin. Skilled in horseback riding and archery, the Xiongnu would launch sudden raids into agricultural regions, stealing crops, livestock, and laborers, and destroying villages. These raids not only disrupted the lives of northern residents but also threatened the Qin Dynasty’s economic stability, as the north was a key grain-producing area.

After unifying China, Qin Shi Huang could no longer tolerate the Xiongnu’s attacks. In 215 BCE, he appointed his trusted general Meng Tian to lead a 300,000-strong army north to repel the tribe. Meng Tian’s campaign was a resounding success: the Qin army drove the Xiongnu back from the southern region of the Yellow River’s Great Bend, crossed the river, and seized control of modern-day Linhe County (Inner Mongolia), the Yinshan Mountains, and the area north of the Wujiahe River. This victory pushed the Xiongnu beyond the old Zhao State wall, bringing temporary peace to the northern border.

However, Qin Shi Huang knew that military campaigns alone could not stop the Xiongnu’s future raids. The nomads’ mobility meant they could return at any time. To create a lasting defense, he ordered Meng Tian to integrate and expand the existing northern walls of the former Qin, Zhao, and Yan States—turning them into a single, continuous barrier.

Construction of the Qin Great Wall: Labor, Materials, and Scale

The construction of the Qin Great Wall was a massive engineering project that spanned nearly a decade (c. 215 BCE – 206 BCE) and relied on an estimated 2 million laborers. These workers included soldiers, war captives, and common people punished for minor offenses—all conscripted to build the wall under harsh conditions. Many lost their lives to exhaustion, hunger, or harsh weather, and their stories later became part of Chinese folklore (such as the tale of Meng Jiangnu, whose tears are said to have melted a section of the wall).

Key Construction Methods

The Qin Great Wall adapted to local geography and resources:

• Rammed earth: The primary building material, made by mixing soil, sand, straw, and even lime (for durability), then compressing the mixture into wooden frames until it hardened. This technique, inherited from the Warring States Period, was cheap and effective for flat or gently sloping areas.
• Stone: In mountainous regions (such as the Yinshan Mountains), workers used local stone to build the wall’s base and outer layers, adding strength to withstand attacks and erosion.
• Integration of old walls: Instead of building from scratch, Meng Tian’s team repaired and extended the existing northern walls of Qin, Zhao, and Yan. They filled gaps between the walls with new sections, creating a seamless barrier.

Scale and Route

When completed, the Qin Great Wall stretched over 5,000 kilometers (about 3,100 miles)—far longer than any single wall from the Warring States Period. Its route ran from Lintao County (modern-day Gansu Province) in the west, passed through Guyuan City (Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region), connected to the old Zhao State wall, crossed the Yellow River, merged with the remaining sections of the Zhao and Yan walls, and finally extended east along the northern foothills of the Yanshan Mountains to Jieshishan Mountain (near the Datong River in modern-day Pyongyang, North Korea). This route not only defended the northern border but also helped the Qin Dynasty consolidate control over newly conquered territories.

Historical Significance of the Qin Great Wall

The Qin Great Wall was more than a military defense—it shaped the course of Chinese history and left a lasting legacy:

1. Defense Against Nomadic Threats: For decades after its completion, the wall effectively blocked Xiongnu raids, protecting northern farmlands and allowing agriculture to thrive. This stability laid the foundation for the Qin Dynasty’s economic prosperity and the spread of Han Chinese culture to the north.
2. Unification of Defensive Strategies: By integrating regional walls into a national system, Qin Shi Huang centralized defense policy—setting a precedent for future dynasties to view the Great Wall as a symbol of national unity, not just a regional barrier.
3. Infrastructure and Communication: The wall was accompanied by the construction of roads and beacon towers. Beacon towers, placed every 3 to 5 kilometers, allowed soldiers to send signals (fire by day, drums by night) across long distances, enabling rapid responses to Xiongnu attacks. These roads also facilitated trade and communication between the central plains and northern regions.
4. Legacy for Future Dynasties: Every major dynasty that followed—from the Han and Tang to the Ming—drew inspiration from the Qin Great Wall. They repaired, extended, or rebuilt sections of it to meet their own defensive needs, ensuring the Great Wall remained a core part of China’s national defense for over 2,000 years.

The Great Wall of the Qin Dynasty, in the end, stands as a testament to the ambition and engineering skill of China’s first unified empire. Its construction came at a heavy human cost, with countless laborers sacrificing their lives to build it—but it fulfilled the purpose Qin Shi Huang set out for it: defending the northern border from Xiongnu raids, binding the new empire together through a shared defensive system, and planting the seeds for what would become one of the world’s most iconic cultural symbols. Today, most of the Qin Great Wall has eroded away, replaced by the more famous walls of later dynasties, but its impact lingers. The ruins that still dot northern China’s landscapes, the stories passed down through folklore, and the very idea of the Great Wall as a marker of China’s strength and continuity—all trace back to this pivotal project. Without the Qin Dynasty’s vision, the Great Wall we know today might never have taken shape.

The Warring States Period (476 BCE – 221 BCE) was a turbulent era in ancient China, marked by endless conflicts between seven major states—Qin, Zhao, Yan, Qi, Chu, Wei, and Han. As battles for territory and supremacy intensified, and threats from northern nomadic tribes (such as the Xiongnu and Donghu) grew, each state began to build or expand defensive walls. Unlike the scattered, short fortifications of the earlier Spring and Autumn Period, the Great Wall of the Warring States Period was more systematic, longer, and focused on both internal state defense and external tribal resistance. These walls laid a critical foundation for the unified Great Wall constructed by the Qin Dynasty later, and their ruins still tell stories of ancient China’s military wisdom.

Historical Context: Why the Warring States Built Great Walls

After the decline of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the seven major states became independent political and military powers. Unlike the Spring and Autumn Period, when conflicts were often small-scale, the Warring States Period saw large-scale, long-lasting wars—with armies numbering in the hundreds of thousands. For example, the Battle of Changping (260 BCE) between Qin and Zhao resulted in over 400,000 casualties. To protect their farmlands, cities, and people from enemy invasions, states needed more effective defenses than temporary forts.

At the same time, northern states like Qin, Zhao, and Yan faced a dual threat: attacks from southern rival states and raids from nomadic tribes in the Mongolian grasslands. These tribes, skilled in horseback riding and archery, would sweep into agricultural areas, steal crops and livestock, and destroy villages. Traditional military camps could not stop these fast-moving raids, so building continuous walls along the northern borders became a practical solution.

Thus, the Great Wall of the Warring States Period had two core purposes: defending against rival states (for southern states like Chu and Qi) and resisting nomadic tribes (for northern states like Qin, Zhao, and Yan). Each state’s wall was tailored to its unique geographical location and security needs.

Key Great Walls of Major Warring States

1. The Qin State’s Great Wall

The Qin State, located in western China (modern-day Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces), faced threats from two directions: the powerful Chu State to the east and the nomadic Rong and Di tribes to the north. Its Great Wall was built in two sections:

• Northern Wall: Constructed to block nomadic raids, this wall stretched from present-day Tianshui (Gansu Province) eastward to Dingbian (Shaanxi Province), following the northern foothills of the Qinling Mountains. It used rammed earth as the main material—workers mixed soil, sand, and straw, then pressed it into wooden frames to form solid layers. Some sections also used local stones to reinforce the base, making it more resistant to erosion.
• Eastern Wall: Built to defend against the Wei and Han States, this shorter wall ran along the banks of the Yellow River, using the river as a natural barrier to complement the man-made fortifications.

Today, ruins of the Qin State’s Northern Wall can be found in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and northern Shaanxi. These ruins, though overgrown with grass, still show the thick, compacted rammed earth structure that made the wall durable.

2. The Zhao State’s Great Wall

The Zhao State, in northern China (modern-day Shanxi and Hebei Provinces), was one of the most powerful states in the Warring States Period. It faced severe threats from the Xiongnu—a fierce nomadic tribe that dominated the northern grasslands. To protect its northern borders, King Wuling of Zhao (r. 325 BCE – 299 BCE) launched a military reform (known as “Hu 服骑射，” or “wearing Hu clothes and practicing horse archery”) and built a large-scale Great Wall:

• Location: The wall started from Dai (present-day Zhangjiakou, Hebei Province) in the east, passed through Datong (Shanxi Province), and ended in Baotou (Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region) in the west, covering over 1,000 kilometers.
• Features: Unlike earlier walls, the Zhao State’s Great Wall was built on high mountain ridges, taking advantage of the terrain to maximize defensive power. Soldiers stationed on the wall could easily spot approaching Xiongnu cavalry from miles away. The wall also had more beacon towers—every 3 to 5 kilometers, a tower was built to send fire signals (day) or drum signals (night) to warn of invasions.
• Purpose: This wall not only stopped Xiongnu raids but also allowed the Zhao State to expand its territory northward, controlling important trade routes between agricultural and nomadic regions.

Ruins of the Zhao State’s Great Wall in Inner Mongolia are well-preserved. In some areas, the wall stands 3 to 4 meters high, with clear traces of rammed earth layers and beacon tower foundations.

3. The Yan State’s Great Wall

The Yan State, in northeastern China (modern-day Beijing, Tianjin, and Liaoning Province), faced threats from the Donghu nomads to the north and the Qi State to the south. It built two separate Great Walls:

• Northern Wall (Yishui Wall): Built to resist the Donghu, this wall stretched from present-day Miyun (Beijing) northeastward to Chaoyang (Liaoning Province), following the mountains along the border of agricultural and nomadic lands. It used a mix of rammed earth and local stones, and some sections were built along river valleys to block the Donghu’s access to water sources.
• Southern Wall: Constructed to defend against the Qi State, this wall ran along the Yishui River (in present-day Hebei Province), using the river as a natural moat. The wall itself was shorter but thicker, with more watchtowers to monitor Qi’s military movements.

The Yan State’s Northern Wall is closely related to modern Beijing’s Great Wall. For example, the Simatai section of the Ming Great Wall (a popular tourist spot today) was built on the foundation of the Yan State’s ancient wall—showing the continuity of Great Wall construction over millennia.

4. The Qi State’s Expanded Great Wall

The Qi State, in eastern China (modern-day Shandong Province), was a powerful agricultural state with few nomadic threats. Its Great Wall, first built in the Spring and Autumn Period, was expanded during the Warring States Period to defend against the Chu and Zhao States to the south:

• Expansion: The original Qi Great Wall (500 kilometers) was extended westward to connect with the Taihang Mountains, making the total length over 1,000 kilometers. It ran from the coast of the Bohai Sea (east) to present-day Heze (Shandong Province, west), forming a “barrier” across the southern border of Qi.
• Unique Features: The Qi Great Wall was famous for its use of local stone. In mountainous areas, builders carved large stones from nearby quarries to build the wall’s core, making it more solid than rammed-earth walls. In flat areas, it used rammed earth mixed with seashells (from the nearby coast), which added strength and resistance to moisture.

Today, the Qi Great Wall is one of the best-preserved Warring States Great Walls. The section in Mengshan Mountain (Shandong Province) has been turned into a cultural heritage site, where visitors can walk along the ancient stone walls and see the remains of watchtowers and soldier barracks.

5. The Chu State’s Western Wall

The Chu State, in southern China (modern-day Hubei, Hunan, and Henan Provinces), was the largest state in the Warring States Period. It faced threats from the Qin State to the west, so it expanded its earlier Spring and Autumn Period walls into a longer Western Wall:

• Location: The wall ran from present-day Nanyang (Henan Province) southwestward to Jingmen (Hubei Province), following the western foothills of the Dabie Mountains.
• Purpose: This wall was designed to block Qin’s eastward expansion. It had wide paths on top, allowing soldiers to move quickly to defend against Qin’s infantry and cavalry. The wall also had small gates along the way, which could be closed to stop enemy troops but opened to allow Chu’s own soldiers and merchants to pass.

Legacy of the Warring States Great Wall

The Great Wall of the Warring States Period was not a single, unified structure—each state built its own wall for its own needs. However, these walls had a profound impact on Chinese history:

1. Foundation for the Qin Great Wall: When Qin Shi Huang unified China in 221 BCE, he ordered the connection of the northern walls of Qin, Zhao, and Yan into a single “Great Wall” to defend against the Xiongnu. Without the Warring States’ earlier wall-building experience and existing structures, this massive project would have been impossible.
2. Military Innovation: The Warring States Great Wall introduced new defensive concepts, such as using terrain to enhance defense, building beacon towers for communication, and mixing materials (rammed earth, stone, seashells) for durability. These innovations were used in all later Great Wall constructions, including the famous Ming Great Wall.
3. Symbol of State Identity: For each state, the Great Wall was not just a military tool but also a symbol of its power and sovereignty. It marked the boundary between “our land” and “enemy land,” shaping the early concept of borders in ancient China.
4. Cultural Heritage: Today, the ruins of the Warring States Great Wall are important cultural relics. They provide valuable evidence for studying ancient Chinese military strategy, architecture, and geography. Many sections have been listed as national key cultural heritage sites, attracting historians, archaeologists, and tourists from around the world.

Conclusion

The Warring States Period was a critical era in the history of China’s Great Wall. During this time of chaos and conflict, each state built walls to survive—defending against rivals and nomads alike. These walls, though scattered and independent, laid the groundwork for the unified Great Wall that would later become a symbol of China. They are a testament to the wisdom, hard work, and resilience of ancient Chinese people, who turned harsh terrain into a powerful defense. Today, as we walk along the ruins of these ancient walls, we can still feel the tension of the Warring States era and appreciate the lasting legacy of one of the world’s greatest architectural achievements.

The Great Wall of China has a long history, and its construction was initiated in the Spring and Autumn Period (770B.C.-476B.C.) and the subsequent Warring States Period (476B.C.-221B.C.). During these times, it was mainly built as a defense facility to prevent invasions from other states and external nomadic tribes.​

To understand the origin of the Great Wall in the Spring and Autumn Period, we first need to look at the historical context of that era. After the Shang Dynasty collapsed, the Zhou Dynasty took over the administration of China. The Zhou Dynasty is divided into the Western Zhou (the middle of the 11th century B.C.-771B.C.) and the Eastern Zhou (770B.C.-256B.C.). The Eastern Zhou Period further includes two stages: the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. In the Spring and Autumn Period, the central power of the Zhou Dynasty weakened significantly, and various regional states began to grow stronger. They competed for territory, resources, and dominance, while also facing threats from external tribes. Building defensive walls thus became a necessary measure for these states.​

The Great Wall of the Chu State​

The Chu State was one of the powerful states in the Spring and Autumn Period. It was initially located in the central plains along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. Although its agricultural development was relatively slow, it had a strong military force. With this military advantage, the Chu State continuously expanded its territory to the banks of the Yangtze River. Geographically, it bordered the Han, Wei, Song, and Qi States to the north, the Ba and Qin States to the west, the Bai’e region to the south, and the sea to the east. Among the major states at that time, the Chu State had the largest territory.​

According to historical records, the Chu State was the first to construct components that would later evolve into the Great Wall. In the Spring and Autumn Period, the Chu State started as a small vassal state and gradually grew stronger by conquering weaker neighboring states. To gain dominance in the Central Plains and fend off invasions from the powerful Jin and Qi States, around 656B.C., the Chu State began building a series of walls along its northern border. These early boundary walls were shaped like the letter “U” and were later referred to as “the Rectangle Wall”—they were the earliest form of the Great Wall in Chinese history.​

When entering the Warring States Period, the threat to the Chu State intensified, especially from the Qin State, which was becoming increasingly powerful. To cope with this, the Chu State extended its existing walls, making them more solid and integrated to better defend against invasions from neighboring states. Today, traces of these long-disintegrated walls can still be found in various locations in Henan Province, such as Lushan County, Yexian County of Pingdingshan City, Wugang City, Fangcheng County, and Nanzhao County of Nanyang City.​

The Great Wall of the Qi State​

The Qi State was another important state during the Spring and Autumn Period, with its capital established in Linzi (the present-day Linzi County in Shandong Province). Geographically, it bordered the Lu, Chu, and Song States to the south, the Zhao State to the west, and the Yan State to the north. Even before the Spring and Autumn Period, the Qi State was already a large and powerful vassal state, with developed agriculture and a strong economy.​

To safeguard its southern border and prevent invasions from neighboring states like Chu and Song, during the reign of King Xuan of Qi, the Qi State constructed a defensive wall in the southern part of its territory. This wall stretched approximately 500 kilometers from west to east, connecting the bank of the Yuan River in the west to the northern foot of Mount Taishan in the east. In some historical documents, this wall is referred to as the “Great Defense” of the Qi State. Unlike the early walls of the Chu State, the Qi State’s wall made full use of local geographical conditions—for example, using mountain slopes and river banks to enhance its defensive capabilities. Some sections of the wall even used local stone materials to reinforce the structure, making it more durable than rammed-earth walls in other regions.​

Today, parts of the ancient Qi State Great Wall still remain in Shandong Province. For instance, in the Mengshan Mountain area, visitors can see the remains of the wall, which have weathered over thousands of years but still showcase the architectural wisdom of the ancient Qi people. These ruins are important physical evidence of the early Great Wall and provide valuable insights for studying the military and architectural history of the Spring and Autumn Period.​

Significance of the Spring and Autumn Period Great Wall​

The Great Wall built in the Spring and Autumn Period laid the foundation for the subsequent development of China’s Great Wall. Although these early walls were not as long or grand as the Great Wall of the Ming Dynasty, they established the core function of the Great Wall as a defensive facility. Moreover, the construction experience, architectural techniques, and defensive concepts accumulated during this period were passed down to later dynasties. For example, the rammed-earth technique used in building the Chu and Qi States’ walls became a common method in Great Wall construction for subsequent centuries, and the idea of combining natural terrain with man-made walls was also inherited and developed.​

In addition, the Spring and Autumn Period Great Wall reflected the political, military, and geographical situation of that era. Each state’s wall construction was closely related to its own strategic needs and surrounding threats, which provides important historical materials for studying the political pattern and military conflicts of the Eastern Zhou Period. These walls were not only military defenses but also symbols of the power and territory of each state, marking the initial formation of border awareness in ancient China.