The Great Wall of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) was a vital defensive barrier that built on the Qin Dynasty’s legacy, primarily serving to fend off invasions from the northern Xiongnu (Huns). Unlike the Qin Great Wall, which focused on unifying existing fortifications, the Han Great Wall expanded far westward—reaching into modern-day Xinjiang—reflecting the dynasty’s ambition to secure trade routes and protect its vast territory. Its history not only highlights military strategy but also the dynasty’s rise from a weak state to a powerful empire.
Historical Background: The Han Dynasty and Its Two Periods
The Han Dynasty followed the short-lived Qin Dynasty, becoming one of China’s most prosperous and long-lasting unified empires. It is traditionally split into two phases: the Western Han (202 BCE – 24 CE) and the Eastern Han (25 CE – 220 CE).
In 202 BCE, Liu Bang—later known as Emperor Gaozu—founded the Western Han after defeating rival forces. He established the capital in Chang’an, modern-day Xi’an in Shaanxi Province. For over two centuries, Chang’an served as the political and cultural center of the empire. However, in 9 CE, Wang Mang, a court official, seized power and ended the Western Han.
The Eastern Han began in 25 CE when Liu Xiu, a descendant of Liu Bang, reclaimed the throne and declared himself Emperor Guangwu. He moved the capital east to Luoyang, in present-day Henan Province, giving the period its name. The Eastern Han lasted until 220 CE, when internal unrest led to the collapse of the empire.
Early Western Han: Peace with the Xiongnu
In its early years, the Western Han was weak. After the chaos of the Qin collapse and civil wars, the empire lacked the military strength to confront the Xiongnu—a powerful nomadic tribe that controlled the northern grasslands.
To avoid conflict, early Han emperors adopted a policy of “heqin” (marriage alliance). They sent Han princesses to marry Xiongnu leaders, along with gifts of silk, grain, and gold. This temporary peace allowed the Han to rebuild its economy and military. But it was seen as a compromise, and the Xiongnu still occasionally raided northern Han borders, keeping the empire on edge.
Han Wudi: Expanding the Great Wall
The turning point came during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (Han Wudi, r. 141 BCE – 87 BCE). By this time, the Han Dynasty had grown strong enough to challenge the Xiongnu. Han Wudi abandoned the “heqin” policy and launched a series of military campaigns to push the Xiongnu back. He also ordered the expansion and construction of the Great Wall, turning it into a key part of his northern defense strategy.
1. 127 BCE: Rebuilding and Extending North
In 127 BCE, Han Wudi started the first major Han Great Wall project. His forces reclaimed the area south of the Yinshan Mountains (in modern Inner Mongolia) from the Xiongnu. To secure this territory, Han Wudi ordered the repair of the old Qin Great Wall sections in the region and extended them north to the Yinshan foothills. This new barrier blocked the Xiongnu’s access to the fertile northern plains of the Han.
2. 121 BCE: The Hexi Corridor Wall
In 121 BCE, Han Wudi’s general Huo Qubing scored a major victory: he defeated the Xiongnu and took control of the Hexi Corridor. This narrow strip of land (in modern Gansu Province) was crucial—it linked the Han heartland to the Western Regions (central Asia) and the Silk Road.
To protect this strategic passage, Han Wudi ordered the construction of the Hexi Great Wall. Stretching from Yongdeng County to Jiuquan City (both in Gansu), this wall defended against not just the Xiongnu, but also the Qiang, another nomadic group in the west.
3. 110 BCE – 101 BCE: Westward to Xinjiang
By 110 BCE, Han forces had pushed further west. From Jiuquan City to Yumenguan Pass (Gansu), the Han built a line of forts along the route—these forts were part of the Great Wall system, used to guard against Xiongnu raids on caravans and military outposts.
Around 101 BCE, the Han extended the wall even farther: from Yumenguan Pass to Lop Nur (Luobu Po), a desert lake in modern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. This marked the westernmost point of the Han Great Wall.
In total, Han Wudi’s Great Wall projects added about 1,000 kilometers of new fortifications, taking over 20 years to complete.
Eastern Han: Defensive Walls Amid Weakness
The Eastern Han faced different challenges. After Wang Mang’s short reign, the empire was weakened by civil wars and economic troubles. It could no longer launch large-scale campaigns against the Xiongnu. Instead, the focus shifted to building smaller, defensive walls to protect key areas.
Emperor Guangwu (Liu Xiu) ordered his general Ma Cheng to construct four short defense walls along the northern and eastern borders. These walls were not part of a single continuous barrier but targeted vulnerable regions:
- From Lishi County (Shaanxi) to the southeast of Xianyang (Shaanxi);
- From Gaoling County (Shaanxi) to Anyi County (Shanxi);
- From Taiyuan (Shanxi) to Jingxing County (Hebei);
- From Dingxian County (Hebei) to Linhang County (Henan).
These walls helped protect the Eastern Han capital of Luoyang and nearby agricultural lands. Later, the Xiongnu split into two groups: the Southern Xiongnu and the Northern Xiongnu. The Southern Xiongnu allied with the Han and lived alongside Han people, helping to secure the northern border. The Northern Xiongnu were driven out of modern Xinjiang and the Mongolian Plateau during the reign of Emperor He of Han (r. 88 CE – 105 CE). With the Xiongnu threat gone, the Eastern Han stopped building new Great Wall sections.
New Discoveries of the Han Great Wall
In recent years, archaeologists have made important finds related to the Han Great Wall. One notable discovery is a 24-kilometer section in the desert of Gansu Province, near Jinta County.
Despite being exposed to wind and rain for nearly 2,000 years, the overall shape and style of this section remain clear—half of it is even well-preserved. This find has expanded the known length of Han Great Wall ruins in Jinta County to 320 kilometers, offering new insights into how the Han built and maintained their western defenses.
The Han Great Wall was more than just a military structure. It protected the Silk Road, allowing trade and cultural exchange between China and the West. It also marked the Han Dynasty’s expansion into central Asia, solidifying its status as a major empire. While much of the Han Great Wall has eroded over time, its legacy lives on—in the ruins that dot northern and western China, in historical records, and in the role it played in shaping ancient China’s relations with its neighbors. Without the Han Great Wall, the dynasty’s prosperity and influence might never have reached the heights they did.